The Moral Economy of Islam: Bibliographies

Moral Economy of Islam: Institute of International Studies; University of California, Berkeley

The Moral Economy of Islam; Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley: Bibliographies

Fundamentalism: Journals

Abdelmoula, Adam M. The 'fundamentalist' agenda for human rights: the Sudan and Algeria. Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) v18, n1 (Wntr, 1996):1. Abstract: Militant Arab groups do not subscribe to the universally regarded Western idea of human rights. They justify human rights atrocities with the fundamentalist assertion that Islam makes no provisions for human rights. The National Islamic Front which assumed power in Sudan ranks among the world's worst human rights violators. Ditto for the Islamic Front for Salvation in Algeria. Other Arab countries register similar human rights offenses.

Afshari, Reza. An essay on Islamic cultural relativism in the discourse of human rights. Human Rights Quarterly v16, n2 (May, 1994):235-276. Abstract: The attempt to supplant secular modernism with Islamic fundamentalism in Iran and other Islamic nations has been undermined by the growing global acceptance of cultural relativism, human rights and other secular institutions. In the modern discourse, fundamentalism practices and zealotry are read as a means of justifying human rights abuses, and human rights concerns are a threat to the cultural purity of Islam. To properly integrate human rights concerns into Islam, fundamentalist beliefs must be freed from patriarchal notions and political influences.

Ahady, Anwar Ul-Haq. The decline of Islamic fundamentalism. Journal of Asian and African Studies v27, n3-4 (July-Oct, 1992):229. Abstract: Author Abstract: Islamic fundamentalism has either declined or stagnated since the mid-1980s. This is evident in the declining electoral strength of many fundamentalist political parties; in the ability of the authoritarian nationalist regimes to suppress the fundamentalist challengers; in the declining popularity of the Islamic regime in Iran; in the continuing rise of modernity in the Islamic world; and, in the attitude surveys of Muslim students. The decline of Islamic fundamentalism is related to three factors: first, fundamentalism offers a peculiar conception of Islam which is not shared by most Muslims; second, fundamentalism's rejection of certain elements of modernity is quite unpopular; and, third, as a socio-political alternative, fundamentalism is both incomplete and incoherent. COPYRIGHT E.J. Brill (The Netherlands) 1992.

Amuzegar, Jehangir. Islamic fundamentalism in action: the case of Iran. Middle East Policy v4, n1-2 (Sept, 1995):22. Abstract: Islamic fundamentalism, which emerged as an alternative to the extremes of left and right during the Cold War era, has become the most potent political force of change after the Iranian revolution in 1979. It has challenged, not only the western culture prevalent in the Islamic countries but West itself. An analysis of Islamic fundamentalism, as it is present in Iran has been conducted. However, it is improper to generalize Islamic fundamentalism all over the world based on an analysis of Iran. Situations everywhere is different and so are the Islamic groups.

Anees, Munawar Ahmad. Islam and scientific fundamentalism. (Progress of Faith, Retreat of Reason?) New Perspectives Quarterly v10, n3 (Summer, 1993):61. Abstract: The Western mind's view of religion and science is compared with the Muslim's view. While the west sees religion and science as two distint epistemic categories, the Muslim world sees them as parts of a continuum that complement one another.

Aoude, Ibrahim G. From national bourgeois development to Infitah: Egypt 1952-1992. Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ) v16, n1 (Wntr, 1994):1. Abstract: Political conflicts in the 1920s and 1930's and the onset of World War I opened Egypt's doors for industrial development. The Egyptian economy's integration into the international political system led to the emergence of national bourgeoisie whose goals were directed towards industrialization. However, the failure of capitalism to boost Egypt's economy has led to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism whose deep religious beliefs prevent the country from opening its economy to the West.

Baktiari, Bahman. Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World. (book reviews) Journal of Church and State v30, n1 (Wntr, 1988):143-144. Pub Type: Review.

Baron, Beth. Unveiling in early twentieth century Egypt: practical and symbolic considerations. Middle Eastern Studies v25, n3 (July, 1989):370. Pub Type: Biography.

Bartholomew, Craig. The challenge of Islam in Africa. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies v6, n1-2 (Annual, 1994):129. Abstract: Resurgence of Islam in Africa is assuming militant proportions, with fundamentalists considering Christianity responsible for the unbalanced growth and poor economic conditions in the country. The fundamentalists aim to establish a Shari'ah law similar to that in Iran and Sudan and blame corruption for the poor conditions and lack of development in such countries. They believe that Islam is not merely a religion but is applicable to all facets of life.

Chafri, Farida Faouzia. When Galileo meets Allah. (Islam: The Politics of Monotheism) New Perspectives Quarterly v11, n2 (Spring, 1994):30. Abstract: It is surprising how Islamic fundamentalists are more open to the sciences rather than to the arts. However, Islamists filter scientific knowledge through religious dogma and distort it as a result.

Chesnoff, Richard Z. and Kazemazadeh, Masoud. Review essay.(Ruhollah Ayatollah Khomeini's philosophy) Middle East Policy v4, n3 (March, 1996):161. Abstract: Ruhollah Ayatollah Khomeini's philosophy is modern and adaptable instead of the widely held belief which considers his ideology as rigid and conservative. Khomeini's social and political beliefs changed dramatically from 1940 to 1989. His 1940 writings supported the monarchy, but in 1970s he opined that it had no place in Islam and advocated the custody of Ulama. Khomeini took over the Western and secular labour movement of the Iranian communists and socialists. He combined it with the religious sentiments of the labor class by interpreting Prophet Muhammad and Imam Ali as laborers.

Collihan, Kathleen M.; Danopoulos, Constantine. Coup d'etat attempt in Trinidad: its causes and failure. Armed Forces & Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal v19, n3 (Spring, 1993):435. Abstract: Author Abstract: This article analyzes the factors and processes involved in the failed coup attempt in Trinidad and Tobago by the Jamaat Muslimeen in July 1990. After a brief overview of historical and economic development, the analysis finds a close relationship between export dependency and political stability. The article also documents that intraMuslim jealousies and religious fundamentalism contributed to the Muslimeen's decision to attempt a coup against the Robinson government. The group's small size, poor planning, and inability to enlist the support of other social groups, including the military, contributed to the coup's failure. COPYRIGHT Transaction Publishers 1993.

Collins Dunn, Michael. Central Asian Islam: Fundamentalist threat or communist bogeyman? Middle East Policy v11, n1 (Wntr, 1993):35. Abstract: The religion of Islam is being revived in the Central Asian states in many different forms. The conservative official Islam still has importance, as it was taught under communist rule. The Sufi orders have returned, as they were always present. Fundamentalism in the form of urban political Islamism is strongest in Uzbekistan's Fergana Valley, and a few other areas. This revival is based on historic notions of Sufi orders as resistance to foreign rule, and is therefore good in determining national identity.

Dallal, Ahmad. The origins and objectives of Islamic revivalist thought, 1750-1850. Journal of the American Oriental Society v113, n3 (July-Sep, 1993):341.

Dekmejian, R. Hrair. The rise of political Islamism in Saudi Arabia. Middle East Journal v48, n4 (Autumn, 1994):627. Abstract: Islamic forces became a political force in Saudi Arabia after the Gulf war, resulting in the alienation of the monarchy and the adoption of the Basic law of Governance according to Islamic tenets. The growth of political Islam started with the formation of the Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights and the results Consultative Council set up by King Fahd. The council's literate members declared that Islamic religious laws were not violated, thereby providing the rallying point for political Islam.

Deng, Francis M. Egypt's dilemmas on the Sudan. Middle East Policy v4, n1-2 (Sept, 1995):50. Abstract: The attempt to assassinate Egypt's President Husni Mubarak in June 1995 has significantly affected the relationship between Sudan and Egypt. The Islamic regime in Khartoum has been accused of the murderous attempt. Although, the involvement of Sudan in supporting the Islamist, anti-Mubarak movement is not confirmed, questions have been raised about the fundamentalist regime in Sudan and the radical attitude it has taken in international politics. However, direct military action against Khartoum involves a lot of risk which the Egyptian government cannot afford to take.

Dresch, Paul; Haykel, Bernard. Stereotypes and political styles: Islamists and tribesfolk in Yemen. International Journal of Middle East Studies v27, n4 (Nov, 1995):405. Abstract: An Islamist party, Islah, came into existence between 1990 and 1994 during an internal unrest in Yemen. The press rhetoric that Islah is a fundamentalist and radical party is only partly true. Press statements affected the image of Arab nations and their politics. But Islah is playing a major and active role in Yemen's politics. Islah has been trying to gain the support of tribesmen, without much success. The political ideology of Islah is not very different from that of other parties.

Dunn, Michael C. Islamic activists in the West: a new issue produces backlash. Middle East Policy v3, n1 (Wntr, 1994):137. Abstract: The presence of Islamic activists in the US, Britain and France has become a political issue as some activists indulge in acts against the host country. This has led to stricter immigration laws which seek to distinguish exiles persecuted in the homeland for no justifiable reason, from those who wish to use the host country as a base to launch attacks against the government of their native country.

Dunn, Michael Collins. Fundamentalism in Egypt. Middle East Policy v2, n3 (Summer, 1993):68. Abstract: Egypt's resilient society, its strong state security system and the moderate, secular views of the majority of Egyptian Muslims may prevent fundamentalists from capturing state power. The emergence of Islamic radical groups such as the New Jihad and al-Gamaa are part of a revival of interests in religion. People seek support in religious symbols and institutions to confront persistent socio-economic problems, though the secular character of Egyptian society remains intact.

Dunn, Michael Collins. Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World. (book reviews) Middle East Policy v4, n1-2 (Sept, 1995):246. Pub Type: Review.

Dunn, Michael Collins. Revivalist Islam and democracy: thinking about the Algerian quandary. Middle East Policy v1, n2 (Spring, 1992):16. Abstract: The voiding of the Islamic Salvation Front's victory in Algeria's first free multiparty elections was seen as a precautionary measure by Islamic secularists while others viewed the move as a contradiction of the democratic process. The event questions the viability of coexistence between fundamentalist movements and democracy. The problem is that fundamentalist programs are often ambiguous. People will continue to doubt fundamentalist intentions until their programs are clarified and clearly presented, but this does not necessarily mean that election reversals should be advocated.

Esposito, John L. Political Islam: beyond the green menace. Current History v93, n579 (Jan, 1994):19. Abstract: To many, the perceived threat posed by Islamic fundamentalists has replaced the void left by the fall of communism. Islam has been largely vilified by the Western press, which focuses on its extremists and ignores its moderate, law-abiding vast majority.

Fandy, Mamoun. Egypt's Islamic Group: regional revenge? Middle East Journal v48, n4 (Autumn, 1994):607. Abstract: Egypt's Islamic Group, al-Jama'a al-Islamiyya, has risen in the southern region because of economic and local issues. These fallahins or non-Arab Egyptians have resorted to revenge killing of the northerners who rule Egypt. Members of the Islamic Group, a militant organization that advocates the Islamization of Egypt, believe themselves to be descendants of ancient Egyptians. The northern tribes' control over the Cairo government is the main reason for the conflict between the Islamic group and other northern Egyptian Parties.

Ghaffari, Reza. The economic consequences of Islamic fundamentalism in Iran. Capital & Class, n56 (Summer, 1995):91.

Ghosh, Partha S. Bangladesh at the crossroads: religion and politics. Asian Survey v33, n7 (July, 1993):697. Abstract: The concept of secularism exists in Bangladesh, despite religion being used by the political parties to win votes. An examination of the fifth general election in Feb 1991 does not reveal whether the Bangladeshis prefer Bengali or Islamic identity, but the issues concerning the appointment of Golam Azam and the destruction of the mosque in India reveals the confused attitude of the people. The Awami League opposed the government on the appointment of Golam Azam as the 'ameer' of the Jamaat-i-Islami, as he was accused of being a Muslim fundamentalist. It also charged Bangladesh National Party (BNP) to be in league with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) of India, which had been involved in the destruction of the Babri Masjid.

Goldberg, Ellis. Smashing idols and the state: the Protestant ethic and Egyptian Sunni radicalism. Comparative Studies in Society and History v33, n1 (Jan, 1991):3.

Halliday, Fred. Review article: the politics of 'Islam' - a second look. British Journal of Political Science v25, n3 (July, 1995):399. Abstract: Islamic fundamentalist movements show no sign of diminishing their influence on the politics of the Islamic world. They rule over Iran and Sudan and may come into power in Egypt and Algeria. Restraining the activities of these fundamentalist movements would be difficult in societies where they convey the frustrations of the people. Ultimately, they may have to give in to foreign pressures or remain in power at a great cost to society but only to perish in the end.

Hamzeh, A. Nizar; Dekmejian, R. Hrair. A Sufi response to political Islamism: al-Ahbash of Lebanon. International Journal of Middle East Studies v28, n2 (May, 1996):217. Abstract: Ahbash have emerged as an important political front in Lebanon and present an alternative to the powerful Islamic trend within the Islamic sphere. Both al-Ahbash and al-Jama'a refuse to accept the Islamic legitimacy of one another. The Ahbash can accomodate individuals with a desire for spiritualism as well as those who have adopted the modern life-style. In their efforts, the Ahbash have exhibited the real strengths of the Sufi tradition in societies like Lebanon, which possess a high degree of religious pluralism. However, all Sufi orders are not acceptable to the Ahbash.

Hovsepian, Nubar. Competing Identities in the Arab World.(Continuity and Transformation: The Modern Middle East) Journal of International Affairs v49, n1 (Summer, 1995):1-24. Abstract: Totalitarian govts have fostered the current social and political crisis of the Middle East, with Islam ascendant because so many people are unemployed and unable to participate in the community. These govts long repressed the relatively liberal nonreligious opposition, creating a vacuum that the increasingly organized religious groups are eager to fill. Authoritarianism created the violence now so widely associated with the Middle East, and must soon change to bring good govt back to avert true disaster.

Iranian military resurgence: scope, motivations, and implications for regional security. (book reviews) Armed Forces & Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal v21, n4 (Summer, 1995):573. Pub Type: Review. Abstract: The international community expected Iran concentrate on rebuilding its economy rather than on the practice of radical Islam in international politics after the Iran-Iraq war. However, Rashemi Rafsanjani continues to engage in military expenditures, support for terrorism, large-scale military exercises and international destabilization. Although it is neither an immediate nor grave threat, Iran could easily resort to armed conflicts to validate its revolutionary government and to distract Iranians from the effects of socioeconomic stagnation. Nigeria's armed forces has repeatedly failed to fulfill its promise to stay out of politics for nearly two-thirds of the country's independent history. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida's annulment of the 1993 presidential election results, which were fair but produced a president that was unacceptable to the military, shows that deep-rooted beliefs and practices ensure that military officers will continue to be a major force in Nigeria's politics. Attempts to establish a civilian government will fail until the problems of lack of military professionalism, ethnic tensions and uncertainties about democratization are solved. Field observations, interviews and surveys of American soldiers who served in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia were conducted to examine the attitudes of soldiers thrust into the role of distributing aid, a duty that is not part of combat soldiers' normal training and duties. The results showed that whites, men and combat soldiers tended to adopt a warrior attitude when attacked by Somalis. In contrast, African Americans, women and support soldiers usually distinguished between clan warriors and needy refugees, gave excuses for Somali warrior's negative behavior and generally maintained a humanitarian attitude. Interviews of Dept. of Defense policymakers and individuals who have something to do with child care in military installations were conducted to determine how the delivery of military child care may be improved. The results showed that child care delivery was uneven and child care system goals are undermined by inconsistent child care goals. It was also revealed that military Child Development Centers were highly preferred by military parents but offered the least flexibility in their services. Recommendations for a more systemic approach to military child care are presented.

Ispahani, Mahnaz. Varieties of Muslim experience. (The Islamic World) Wilson Quarterly v13, n4 (Autumn, 1989):63.

Jelloun, Tahar Ben. Laughing at God in North Africa. (includes related article) (Islam: The Politics of Monotheism) New Perspectives Quarterly v11, n2 (Spring, 1994):26. Abstract: Islamic fundamentalism is being used as a battle cry by Algerian rebels who want to overthrow a non-democratic and unpopular government. However, their cruel methods and intolerant philosophy go against the very God they claim to serve.

Jubran, Mochel; Drake, Laura. The Islamic fundamentalist movement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Middle East Policy v2, n2 (Spring, 1993):1. Abstract: The Islamic fundamentalist movement in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has developed in response to perceived weakening of the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO). From 1986 the Islamic Jihad grew from a desire for armed struggle to achieve a Palestinian State. This contrasted with the Muslim Brotherhood's emphasis on an Islamic socialization policy. However, the Brotherhood was forced to bow to increased public pressure for militant action with the creation of Hammas. Hammas is poised to challenge the PLO as the defender of Palestinian nationalism.

Kadioglu, Ayse. Women's subordination in Turkey: is Islam really the villain? Middle East Journal v48, n4 (Autumn, 1994):645. Abstract: Traditional Islamic scholars and secular westernized intellectuals are responsible for the conflicts in views that have led to the low status accorded to Turkish women. Some intellectuals say that Islam accords a high respect for women, citing female idol worship of Lat, Uzza and Menat by ancient Meccans, while other cite female infanticide, the prevalence of polygyny and patrilineal marriages in pre-Islamic era as causes of the low social status of women in Turkey.

Karabell, Zachary. The wrong threat: the United States and Islamic fundamentalism. World Policy Journal v12, n2 (Summer, 1995):37. Abstract: The US government generally perceives Islamic fundamentalism as the 'new communism,' which should be steadfastly opposed and prevented from spreading to the democratic countries of the Middle East. Such a perception, however, is not based on fact but rather on the images presented by mass media of gun-totting Muslims. Moreover, it presupposes that Islam and democracy are two inreconciliable concepts. To effectively deal with the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, the US needs to adopt a foreign policy which outlines its primary objectives and ensure that these objectives are met regardless of the changes in the political status quo in the Middle East.

Khomeini's leaden legacy. (Islamic fundamentalists rule Iran's politics) Middle East, n221 (March, 1993):13. Abstract: The dramatic reversal of Iran's Pres Ali Akbar Rafsanjani in his eagerness to establish more friendly relations with the US surprised, if not disappointed, many. Rafsanjani is perceived to have given in to pressure from the Islamic fundamentalists led by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei. However, hardline fundamentalism will hardly produce the political, social and economic reforms which disillusioned Iranian moderates are seeking.

Kodmani-Darwish, Bassma. Arafat and the Islamists: conflict or cooperation?(Yasir Arafat and Hamas - the Islamic Resistance Movement) Current History v95, n597 (Jan, 1996):28. Abstract: One of Arafat's main jobs in establishing the legitimacy of the Palestinian National Authority are co-opting, controlling, and mainstreaming Hamas. He tamed many factions, both military and political, within the Palestinian Liberation Organization during the last 25 years. But Hamas is a newer movement, never a part of the PLO, which has yet to commit to the peaceful negotiation and resettlement processes Arafat negotiated with Israel in Oslo in 1993.

Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. Post-Cold War clouds on the Horn of Africa: the Eritrea-Sudan crisis. Middle East Policy v4, n1-2 (Sept, 1995):34. Abstract: A new cold war in the Horn of Africa involving Eritrea and Sudan has replaced the East-West Cold War and the Ethiopia-Somalia dispute. There is every chance of this escalating into a full-scale war. The root cause for the growing international conflict is a secularist-Islamist conflict. The situation has been worsened by the Middle Eastern powers who have longstanding geopolitical interests in the region. The West does not have a consensus as to how to confront Islamic fundamentalism.

Lowrie, Arthur L. The campaign against Islam and American foreign policy. Middle East Policy v4, n1-2 (Sept, 1995):210. Abstract: Pres Bill Clinton has maintained that the US is not anti-Islam, but the country's actions and the reluctance to engage in dialogue with Islamic intellectuals belie this idea. The American foreign policy towards Islam, which was regarded as an ally during the Cold War days, has significantly changed after the end of the Cold War. The leaders in the Middle East who feel threatened by the emerging force of Islamic fundamentalism actively support the new American stance. The anti-Islam campaigns aimed at both policy makers and public opinion are increasing in the United States. There is a discontent among the Muslims in the US who feel they are being considered probable enemies.

MacIntyre, Andrew. Indonesia in 1992: coming to terms with the outside world. (Indonesia's foreign relations) (A Survey of Asia in 1992: Part II) Asian Survey v33, n2 (Feb, 1993):204. Abstract: Indonesia underwent major developments in its foreign relations in 1992. The dismissal of two senior generals and filing of charges against soldiers involved in the shootings in Dili, East Timor eased Indonesia's tense relations with most Western governments. The country also successfully hosted the 1992 Nonaligned Movement summit. Economic relations with other countries were auspicious and in the political scene, the sixth parliamentary election was held on Jun 9, 1992. However, Islamic fundamentalism may prove to be a major threat to the nation's stability.

Mahfouz, Naguib. Against cultural terrorism. (Islam: The Politics of Monotheism) New Perspectives Quarterly v11, n2 (Spring, 1994):34. Abstract: Egyptian writers and artists have protested against the government's decision to give in to fundamentalist pressure and allow conservative Islamic scholars to censor literature intended for domestic release. The declaration of protest against this move is presented.

Milani, Mohsen M. Harvest of shame: Tudeh and the Bazargan Government. (Mehdi Bazargan's Provisional Revolutionary Government in Iran) Middle Eastern Studies v29, n2 (April, 1993):307. Abstract: Iran's Tudeh communist party helped to undermine Mehdi Bazargan's Provisional Revolutionary Government (PRG), thus opening the way for the Islamic fundamentalists' rise to power. Since Tudeh viewed Bazargan's nationalist PRG as its primary rival and refused take the fundamentalists seriously as revolutionaries, the party allied itself with the fundamentalists even though their religiosity clashed with Tudeh's atheistic ideology. By radicalizing the Iranian Revolution in its attacks on the PRG, the Tudeh unintentionally contributed to the fundamentalists' long-term hold on power.

Militants warn foreigners to leave. (Islamic fundamentalists in Egypt) (includes related article) Facts on File v54, n2778 (Feb 24, 1994):130. Abstract: The radical Islamic fundamentalist group Gamaa al-Islamiya warned foreigners to leave Egypt or they would become the targets of terrorism. The Islamic Group, as it is also known, was seeking revenge for the Feb 1, 1994, raid on their headquarters that killed seven militants.

Milner, A.C. Inventing politics: the case of Malaysia. Past & Present, n132 (August, 1991):104.

Moussalli, Ahmad S. Hasan al-Turabi's Islamist discourse on Democracy and shura. Middle Eastern Studies v30, n1 (Jan, 1994):52. Abstract: Hasan al-Turabi believes the difference between Islamic fundamentalist states and Western democracies is that the former is striving to achieve democracy through a unified belief in God and the latter has put its faith in the government of man. Democracy in the West has the effect of splintering societies along religious lines and puts the material concerns of man above the divine pursuit of God. Islamic fundamentalist states will achieve democracy after a divine unity is attained.

Mutalib, Hussin. Islamic revivalism in ASEAN states: political implications. Asian Survey v30, n9 (Sept, 1990):877.

Nehme, Michel G. Lebanon: open arena for regional feuds. Journal of Third World Studies v12, n1 (Spring, 1995):120. Abstract: Lebanon resembles an arena for regional feuds under the pressure of its own domestic conditions and regional religio-political developments. The competing regional Islamic Shia and Sunni fundamentalists find a chance to counterbalance each other through strategic utilization of Lebanese territory. Syria tries to counterbalance the rise of Sunni fundamentalism by helping Iran backed Shia fundamentalist group, Hizb Allah, inside southern Lebanon. The strategy is intelligent enough to pose a threat to Syrian territory. Israel maintains silence as the strategy protects its interests.

Noorbaksh, Mehdi. The Middle East, Islam and the United States: the special case of Iran. (US and threat of Islamic fundamentalism) Middle East Policy v2, n3 (Summer, 1993):78. Abstract: The perceived threat of Islamic fundamentalism to world peace and security is based on politically and ideologically motivated misinterpretation of the reformist nature of Islamic revival. The portrayal of Iran as a radical Islamic terrorist state by the US has strengthened the extremists and weakened democratic, reformists groups in Iran. The spread of democracy and the introduction of socio-political reforms in the Middle East, especially in Iran, will undermine US domination over the region.

Ritcheson, Philip L. Iranian military resurgence: scope, motivations, and implications for regional security. Armed Forces & Society: An Interdisciplinary Journal v21, n4 (Summer, 1995):573. Abstract: The international community expected Iran concentrate on rebuilding its economy rather than on the practice of radical Islam in international politics after the Iran-Iraq war. However, Rashemi Rafsanjani continues to engage in military expenditures, support for terrorism, large-scale military exercises and international destabilization. Although it is neither an immediate nor grave threat, Iran could easily resort to armed conflicts to validate its revolutionary government and to distract Iranians from the effects of socioeconomic stagnation.

Roberson, B.A. Islam and Europe: an enigma of a myth? Middle East Journal v48, n2 (Spring, 1994):288. Abstract: Europe fears an Islamic threat due to the emergence of Islamic extremism that will affect them. Islamic activities, though from outside Europe, will affect the Muslim communities in the Europe, creating instability. The call for an Islamic state is international, but the ideas about such a state differ from country to country in the Middle East. This has resulted in isolated Islamic movements which cannot pose a threat to Europe.

Schwartz, Amy. Ataturk's daughters. (Kemal Ataturk, women, secularism, and Islamic fundamentalism in today's Turkey) Wilson Quarterly v19, n4 (Autumn, 1995):68. Abstract: Mustafa Kemal Ataturk established modern Turkey on secularism as opposed to Islamic fundamentalism in 1923. Then, as now, the most visible battleground is women's status, concretized in dress codes. Two new elements, however, has recently been added: politicized religious youth organizations that uphold traditional or fundamentalist practices and social changes that created populations shifts from rural existence to urban life.

Shadid, Mohammed; Seltzer, Rick. Growth in Islamic fundamentalism: the case of Palestine. Sociological Analysis v50, n3 (Fall, 1989):291.

Shepard, William E. Islam as a 'system' in the later writings of Sayyid Qutb. Middle Eastern Studies v25, n1 (Jan, 1989):31. Pub Type: Biography.

Shmuelevitz, Aryeh. Urbanization and voting for the Turkish Parliament.(Turkey: Identity, Democracy, Politics) Middle Eastern Studies v32, n2 (April, 1996):162. Abstract: Continued urbanization in which migrants saw the city as a solution to socioeconomic problems which coalition governments belonging to the left of center and center-moderate right did not solve strengthened election trends towards extremism which appeared from 1991 onwards. The religious right seemed a promising extremist option to resolve the crisis.

Sick, Gary. Iran: the adolescent revolution.(Continuity and Transformation: The Modern Middle East) Journal of International Affairs v49, n1 (Summer, 1995):145-166. Abstract: Post-revolutionary tension persists in Iran but increasingly favors awareness of national limitations and the drawbacks of militant actions against its neighbors. Thus it is now less of a threat, in part because its capacities for interference remain less than before the 1979 revolution. The country's leaders have also returned to several policies and programs started by the Shah, showing that national interest can compete successfully with ideology in some political arenas, though only if rewarded.

Sid-Ahmed, Mohamed. Cybernetic colonialism and the moral search. (Resurrection of the Religious Imagination) New Perspectives Quarterly v11, n2 (Spring, 1994):15. Abstract: The western world's dominance of technology has made developing nations dependent on them for progress. Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction to this one-sided relationship where the west, through subtle aggression, imposes its values on non-western societies.

Sreberny-Mohammadi, Annabelle; Mohammadi, Ali. Hegemony and resistance: media politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Quarterly Review of Film and Video v12, n4 (Sept, 1991):33.

Streusand, Douglas E. Abraham's other children. (Islamic nations) Policy Review, n50 (Fall, 1989):50.

Tetreault, Mary Ann. Gulf winds: inclement political weather in the Arabian peninsula. Current History v95, n597 (Jan, 1996):23. Abstract: Only two Gulf Cooperation Council states, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, now support economic sanctions against Iraq. Also stirring discord in the region is Iranian territorial aggression. Domestically, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and the Saudis all face varying degrees of internal dissent, up to and including a coup in Qatar in June 1995. Each is a vigorous competitor in the slowing petroleum trade, which increases domestic economic pressures. Islamic fundamentalism is a constantly growing factor, even in previously immune nations like Saudi Arabia.

Tsebelis, George; Randall, Vicky; Finkel, Steve E.; Schrott, Peter R.; and others. Decision making in political systems: veto players in presidentialism, parliamentarism, multicameralism and multipartyism. British Journal of Political Science v25, n3 (July, 1995):289. Abstract: Islamic fundamentalist movements show no sign of diminishing their influence on the politics of the Islamic world. They rule over Iran and Sudan and may come into power in Egypt and Algeria. Restraining the activities of these fundamentalist movements would be difficult in societies where they convey the frustrations of the people. Ultimately, they may have to give in to foreign pressures or remain in power at a great cost to society but only to perish in the end.

Wright, Robin. Islam's new political face. Current History v90, n552 (Jan, 1991):25.

To Moral Economy of Islam page.